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New Testament apocrypha

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New Testament apocrypha
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Apostolic Fathers
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Jewish–Christian gospels
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The New Testament apocrypha (singular apocryphon)[1] are a number of writings by early Christians that give accounts of Jesus and his teachings, the nature of God, or the teachings of his apostles and of their lives. Some of these writings were cited as scripture by early Christians, but since the fifth century a widespread consensus has emerged limiting the New Testament to the 27 books of the modern canon.[2][3] Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant churches generally do not view the New Testament apocrypha as part of the Bible.[3]

Definition

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The word apocrypha means 'things put away' or 'things hidden', originating from the Medieval Latin adjective apocryphus, 'secret' or 'non-canonical', which in turn originated from the Greek adjective ἀπόκρυφος (apokryphos), 'obscure', from the verb ἀποκρύπτειν (apokryptein), 'to hide away'.[4] Apokryptein in turn comes from the Greek prefix apo-, meaning 'away', and the Greek verb kryptein, meaning 'to hide'.[5]

The general term is usually applied to the books that were considered by the church as useful, but not divinely inspired. As such, to refer to Gnostic writings as "apocryphal" is misleading since they would not be classified in the same category by orthodox believers. Often used by the Greek Fathers was the term antilegomena, or 'spoken against', although some canonical books were also spoken against, such as the Apocalypse of John in the East. Often used by scholars is the term pseudepigrapha, meaning 'falsely inscribed' or 'falsely attributed', in the sense that the writings were written by an anonymous author who appended the name of an apostle to his work, such as in the Gospel of Peter or the Ethiopic Apocalypse of Enoch: almost all books, in both Old and New Testaments, called "apocrypha" in the Protestant tradition are pseudepigrapha. In the Catholic and Orthodox traditions, what are called the apocrypha by Protestants include the deuterocanonical books: in the Catholic tradition, the term apocrypha is synonymous with what Protestants would call the pseudepigrapha, the latter term of which is almost exclusively used by scholars.[6]

History

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Development of the New Testament canon

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Main article: Development of the New Testament canon

That some works are categorized as New Testament apocrypha is indicative of the wide range of responses to the ministry of Jesus. During the first centuries following Jesus' ministry, considerable debate was held in regards to safeguarding the authenticity of his teachings. Three key methods developed to address this survive to the present day: ordination, where groups authorize individuals as reliable teachers of the message; creeds, where groups define the boundaries of interpretation of the message; and canons, which list the primary documents certain groups believe contain the message originally taught by Jesus.

The first centuries of Christianity saw substantial debate in regards to which books should be included in the canons. In general, those books that the majority regarded as the earliest books about Jesus were the ones included. Books that were not accepted into the canons are now termed apocryphal; some were vigorously suppressed and survive only as fragments, or only in mention in the writings of those condemning them. The earliest lists of canonical works of the New Testament were not quite the same as modern lists; for example, the Book of Revelation was regarded as disputed by some Christians (see Antilegomena), while the Shepherd of Hermas was considered genuine by others, and appears (after the Book of Revelation) in the Codex Sinaiticus.[citation needed]

The Syriac Peshitta, used by all the various Syrian churches, originally did not include 2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John, Jude and Revelation. This canon of 22 books is the one cited by John Chrysostom (~347–407) and Theodoret (393–466) from the School of Antioch.[7] Western Syrians have added the remaining five books to their New Testament canons in modern times[7] (such as the Lee Peshitta of 1823). Today, the official lectionaries followed by the Malankara Syrian Orthodox Church and the East Syriac Chaldean Catholic Church, which is in communion with the Holy See, still only present lessons from the 22 books of the original Peshitta.[7]

The Armenian Apostolic church at times has included the Third Epistle to the Corinthians in its biblical canon, but does not always list it with the other 27 canonical New Testament books. The church did not accept Revelation into its Bible until 1200 CE.[8]

Modern scholarship and translation

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English translations were made in the early 18th century by William Wake and by Jeremiah Jones, and collected in 1820 by William Hone's Apocryphal New Testament.[9] The series Ante-Nicene Fathers, volume 8, contains translations by Alexander Walker.[10] New translations by M. R. James appeared in 1924, and were revised by J.K. Eliott, The Apocryphal New Testament, Oxford University Press, 1991. The "standard" scholarly edition of the New Testament Apocrypha in German is that of Schneemelcher,[11] and in English its translation by Robert McLachlan Wilson.[12]

Constantin von Tischendorf and other scholars began to study New Testament apocrypha seriously in the 19th century and produce new translations. The texts of the Nag Hammadi library are often considered separately but the current edition of Schneemelcher also contains eleven Nag Hammadi texts.[13]

Books that are known objectively not to have existed in antiquity are usually not considered part of the New Testament apocrypha. Among these are the Libellus de Nativitate Sanctae Mariae (also called the "Nativity of Mary") and the Latin Infancy gospel. The latter two did not exist in antiquity, and they seem to be based on the earlier Infancy gospels.[citation needed]

Gospels

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Main articles: Gospel and List of gospels

Infancy gospels

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Main article: Infancy gospels

Information about the childhood of Jesus was supplied by a number of 2nd-century and later texts, known as infancy gospels, none of which were accepted into the biblical canon. Despite this, some scholars have noted that the very number of surviving infancy manuscripts attests to their continued popularity.[14]

Most of these manuscripts were based on the earliest infancy gospels, namely the Infancy Gospel of James (also called the "Protoevangelium of James") and the Infancy Gospel of Thomas, and on their later combination into the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew (also called the "Infancy Gospel of Matthew" or "Birth of Mary and Infancy of the Saviour").[citation needed]

The other significant early infancy gospels are the Syriac Infancy Gospel, the Libellus de Nativitate Sanctae Mariae, the Armenian Infancy Gospel, the History of Joseph the Carpenter, and the Life of John the Baptist.

Jewish-Christian gospels

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Main article: Jewish–Christian gospels

The Jewish–Christian Gospels were gospels of a Jewish Christian character quoted by Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius, Epiphanius, Jerome and probably Didymus the Blind.[15] Most modern scholars have concluded that there existed one gospel in Aramaic/Hebrew and at least two in Greek, although a minority argue that there were only two: one Aramaic/Hebrew and one Greek.[16]

None of these gospels survive today, but attempts have been made to reconstruct them from references in the Church Fathers. The reconstructed texts of the gospels are usually categorized under New Testament Apocrypha. The standard edition of Schneemelcher describes the texts of three Jewish–Christian gospels as follows:[17]

1) The Gospel of the Ebionites: The Gospel of the Ebionites is an apocryphal text known primarily through seven fragments quoted in Panarion by Epiphanius of Salamis, a 4th-century church historian. These fragments reflect a Jewish Christian sect, the Ebionites, and their distinctive beliefs. The gospel, likely composed in the 2nd century, offers a version of Jesus' life that diverges from mainstream Christian theology, particularly in its Adoptionist Christology. This theology posits that Jesus was chosen as God's Son at the time of his baptism rather than being divine from birth. Notable features of the Gospel of the Ebionites include the absence of the virgin birth and Jesus' genealogy, the assertion that Jesus abolished animal sacrifice in the temple (with his death on the cross. But the Ebionites kept the other commandments of the laws of Moses), and the advocacy for vegetarianism. The gospel is a harmonized account of the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke), with certain elements such as the baptism of Jesus showing divine election and the descent of the Holy Spirit. Epiphanius mistakenly identified the text as a Hebrew version of the Gospel of Matthew. The gospel's content suggests it was used by the Ebionites in the region east of the Jordan River. Scholars debate the relationship between this gospel and other Jewish-Christian gospels, as well as its possible connection to the Gospel of the Twelve mentioned by early Christian writers. The gospel's portrayal of Jesus focuses on his humanity and emphasizes his adoption as God's Son at baptism, aligning with certain Old Testament prophecies. Despite its fragmentary nature, it provides insight into early Christian sects and their beliefs about Jesus, distinguishing itself from orthodox Christian views on Christ's divinity and birth.
2) The Gospel of the Hebrews: The Gospel of the Hebrews is a lost Jewish-Christian gospel that survives only in fragments quoted by early Church Fathers. It is believed to have been composed in Greek in the early 2nd century, likely in Egypt, and used by Jewish-Christian communities there. It shares similarities with canonical gospels but also contains unique elements. Notably, it presents a Christology where the Holy Spirit is regarded as Jesus' Divine Mother and emphasizes the importance of James, the brother of Jesus. The gospel includes Jesus' baptism, temptation, crucifixion, resurrection, and various sayings, and it highlights ethical teachings like love for one's brother. The gospel's theology is influenced by Jewish-Christian Wisdom literature, portraying the Holy Spirit as a feminine manifestation of Divine Wisdom. Some fragments suggest a syncretic gnostic influence. The text was cited by Church Fathers such as Clement, Origen, and Jerome but was excluded from the New Testament canon. It was viewed as controversial and was eventually lost to history, with only quotes and summaries preserved. The gospel's existence and its fragments show that early Christian thought was diverse, with a mix of Jewish and Hellenistic influences.
3) The Gospel of the Nazarenes: The Gospel of the Nazarenes is a term used by scholars to refer to non-canonical Jewish-Christian gospels mentioned in early Christian writings. These references, including those from figures like Jerome, Origen, and Epiphanius, suggest the existence of a distinct gospel used by the Nazarene community, believed to be an early Jewish sect that followed Jesus. The gospel's content is fragmented, and its relationship to other gospels like the Gospel of the Hebrews or the Gospel of the Ebionites is debated. The Gospel of the Nazarenes is thought to have been written in Hebrew or Aramaic and may have been used by Hebrew-speaking Jewish Christians. Jerome noted that it was based on Matthew's Gospel, originally written in Hebrew, though its exact authorship and the text's origins remain unclear. The surviving citations present minor differences from the canonical Gospel of Matthew, such as variations in the Lord's Prayer and other teachings, indicating a potential development or reinterpretation of the text over time. Some scholars argue that the Gospel of the Nazarenes may have influenced the canonical Gospel of Matthew, while others maintain that it is based on or a version of Matthew's Gospel. The gospel's composition likely dates to the second century, with its primary use among Jewish Christians in Palestine, Syria, or Alexandria. Today, the Gospel of the Nazarenes survives only through quotations and citations in the writings of early Church Fathers.

Some scholars consider that the two last named are in fact the same source.[18]

Non-canonical gospels

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Main article: Gospel § Non-canonical gospels

Passion Gospels

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Main article: Passion Gospels

A number of gospels are concerned specifically with the "Passion" (from the Latin verb patior, passus sum; "to suffer, bear, endure", from which also "patience, patient", etc.)[22]) of Jesus:

Although three texts take Bartholomew's name, it may be that either the Questions of Bartholomew or the Resurrection of Jesus Christ is in fact the unknown Gospel of Bartholomew.

Harmonized gospels

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A number of texts aim to provide a single harmonization of the canonical gospels, that eliminates discordances among them by presenting a unified text derived from them to some degree. The most widely read of these was the Diatessaron.

Gnostic texts about Jesus Christ

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Main article: Gnostic gospels
See also: Apocryphon

In the modern era, many Gnostic texts have been uncovered, especially from the Nag Hammadi library. Some texts take the form of an expounding of the esoteric cosmology and ethics held by the Gnostics. Often this was in the form of dialogue in which Jesus expounds esoteric knowledge while his disciples raise questions concerning it. There is also a text, known as the Epistula Apostolorum, which is a polemic against Gnostic esoterica, but written in a similar style as the Gnostic texts.

Dialogues with Jesus

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General texts concerning Jesus

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Sethian texts concerning Jesus

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The Sethians were a gnostic group who originally worshipped the biblical Seth as a messianic figure, later treating Jesus as a re-incarnation of Seth. They produced numerous texts expounding their esoteric cosmology, usually in the form of visions:

Ritual diagrams

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Some of the Gnostic texts appear to consist of diagrams and instructions for use in religious rituals:

Acts

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Main article: Acts of the Apostles (genre)

Several texts concern themselves with the subsequent lives of the apostles, usually with highly supernatural events. Almost half of these, anciently called The Circuits of the Apostles and now known by the name of their purported author, "Leucius Charinus" (supposedly a companion of John the apostle), contained the Acts of Peter, John, Andrew, Thomas, and Paul. These were judged by the Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople in the ninth century to be full of folly, self-contradiction, falsehood, and impiety. The Acts of Thomas and the Acts of Peter and the Twelve are often considered Gnostic texts. While most of the texts are believed to have been written in the 2nd century, at least two, the Acts of Barnabas and the Acts of Peter and Paul are believed to have been written as late as the 5th century.

Epistles

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Main article: Epistles

There are also non-canonical epistles (or "letters") between individuals or to Christians in general. Some of them were regarded very highly by the early church. Those marked with a lozenge (♦) are included in the collection known as the Apostolic Fathers:

Apocalypses

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Main article: Apocalyptic literature

Several works frame themselves as visions, often discussing the future, afterlife, or both:

Fate of Mary

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Several texts (over 50) consist of descriptions of the events surrounding the varied fate of Mary (the mother of Jesus):

Miscellany

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These texts, due to their content or form, do not fit into the other categories:

  • Apostolic Constitutions: The Apostolic Constitutions (Latin: Constitutiones Apostolorum) is an influential Christian work composed of eight books, providing pseudo-apostolic instructions on Christian discipline, worship, and doctrine. Dating from 375-380 AD, the text is believed to have originated in Syria, possibly Antioch. It is intended as a manual for the clergy, and to some extent the laity, and was purportedly authored by the Twelve Apostles. The work is divided as follows:
    • Books 1-6 are a rewording of the Didascalia Apostolorum, an earlier Christian text.
    • Book 7 includes elements of the Didache and Jewish prayers.
    • Book 8 is a complex section, including a lost treatise, an expanded version of the Apostolic Tradition, and the Canons of the Apostles. The Apostolic Constitutions is an important source for the history of liturgy in the Antiochene rite and is considered an early example of Christian liturgical structure. Despite being initially considered canonical, it was later rejected by some councils and is regarded as apocryphal by the Catholic Church. However, it remained influential in Eastern Christianity, especially the Canons of the Apostles, and was included in the Ethiopian Orthodox canon. The work offers valuable insight into the moral, religious, and liturgical practices of early Christianity. It was largely ignored in the Middle Ages but resurfaced in the 16th century, with its Greek text printed in 1563.
  • Book of Nepos: The Book of Nepos was a 3rd-century Christian text written by the Egyptian bishop Nepos of Arsinoe. Nepos advocated for a literal interpretation of the Bible, especially the Book of Revelation, opposing the prevalent allegorical readings of the time. His text, also known as the Refutation of the Allegorists, aimed to disprove those who viewed certain sections of the Bible as mere allegories. The Book of Nepos no longer exists and is considered lost. It is known indirectly through Eusebius, who quoted a work by Pope Dionysius of Alexandria criticizing Nepos. Nepos believed that Jesus would physically return to earth and reign for 1000 years, a belief that was considered orthodox in the early church but was later viewed allegorically. The dispute over the Book of Nepos marks the first recorded refutation of premillennialism. The text gained popularity in villages around Alexandria, prompting Dionysius to travel there personally to refute it. He did so respectfully, engaging in dialogue with Nepos' followers and challenging their arguments, based on the idea that John was not the author of the Book of Revelation, pointing to stylistic differences between the Gospels and epistles attributed to him. Nepos' followers were known as Nepotians.
  • Canons of the Apostles: The Apostolic Canons is a 4th-century Syrian Christian text, a collection of 85 ecclesiastical rules attributed to the Apostles. It serves as a guide to the governance and discipline of the early Christian Church, covering topics like the duties of bishops, the conduct of clergy, sacraments, and the religious life of Christians. It is considered an appendix to the Apostolic Constitutions and is written in a pseudepigraphic form. The canons were approved by the Trullan Council in 692, but were rejected by Pope Sergius I. Only fifty of these canons were circulated in the Western Church, translated into Latin by Dionysius Exiguus around 500 AD. Scholars agree that the text could not have been composed by the Apostles and was likely written in the 5th or 6th century, with the author probably from Syria. The canons were influential in both Eastern and Western Christian traditions, despite some controversy, especially in the West where they were initially viewed with suspicion. The canons address topics like clerical qualifications, excommunication, and sacraments, and include an important canon listing the Holy Scriptures. While the Eastern Church recognized all 85 canons, the Latin Church acknowledged only 50. The canons were widely disseminated and translated into multiple languages, influencing ecclesiastical law, particularly in the Eastern Church during the 5th and 6th centuries.
  • Cave of Treasures: The Cave of Treasures is an apocryphal and pseudoepigraphical work written in Syriac, likely around the 6th or early 7th century AD. Although traditionally attributed to Ephrem of Edessa, modern scholarship suggests it was written by a later author, possibly a disciple of Ephrem. The work presents various Christian narratives, particularly focused on genealogies from Adam to Christ, and includes some legendary material, such as the description of a cave containing treasures like gold, frankincense, and myrrh, linked to the story of Adam and Eve after their expulsion from Paradise. The text was introduced to the world by Giuseppe Simone Assemani and was later studied for its connections with other apocryphal writings like the Conflict of Adam and Eve. The Cave of Treasures was translated into several languages, including Arabic and Ethiopic, where it influenced works like the Book of the Bee and the Arabic Apocalypse of Peter. Its content largely centers on the genealogical history of Jesus, showing how he is descended from Adam, and rejecting the commonly used genealogies as fictitious. The work was considered a key source for medieval Christians, Arabs, Nubians, and Egyptians interested in their respective ancestries.
  • Clementine literature: The Clementine literature, or Pseudo-Clementine writings, is a 3rd-century Christian romance detailing the conversion of Clement of Rome to Christianity, his travels with the apostle Peter, and their teachings. The two surviving versions are the Clementine Homilies and the Clementine Recognitions, which differ slightly but are both based on a now-lost original text called Periodoi Petrou ("Circuits of Peter"). The writings reflect theological, legal, and cosmological views, highlighting the distinction between Jewish and Gentile laws and emphasizing salvation for Gentiles through Jesus without the need for Mosaic law. Key themes include:
    • Law: A division between Law of Moses (observed by Christian-jews) and the teachings of Jesus for Gentiles, with the notion that Gentiles might be saved by virtue and temperance.
    • Christology: Jesus is portrayed as the "True Prophet" who is pre-existent and embodies the divine, but is not God Himself.
    • Cosmology: The Clementine texts follow a Genesis-like creation narrative, with a description of the cosmos and the separation of the heavens and earth. Abraham is depicted as an astrologer.
    • Influence: The literature was influential in early Christian thought, with significant translations into Syriac, Latin, Arabic, and other languages. The Clementine Homilies are dialogues, while the Recognitions survive mainly in Latin. These texts were influential in both Eastern and Western Christian traditions and contributed to early Christian theological discourse.
  • Didache: The Didache (Greek for "Teaching") is an early Christian treatise, likely written in the first century AD, that provides guidance on Christian ethics, rituals, and church organization. It begins with the “Two Ways,” outlining the paths of life and death, and includes instructions on baptism, fasting, and the Eucharist. The document also discusses the roles of apostles, prophets, bishops, and deacons within the church. It is believed to reflect a community that adapted Jewish practices for Gentile Christians, particularly in Syria, and shares similarities with other early Christian writings like the Gospel of Matthew. The Didache was lost for centuries but rediscovered in 1873 by Philotheos Bryennios. Scholars debate its exact date, with some dating it to the first century. The text is divided into four parts: instructions on Christian life (Two Ways), rituals (baptism, fasting, Eucharist), church ministry, and a prophecy on the Antichrist and Second Coming. Although not included in the New Testament canon, the Didache was highly regarded by some early church fathers and influenced later Christian writings. It offers a unique perspective on early Christian communities and their practices, often focusing on moral teachings, communal organization, and faith-based rituals.
  • Liturgy of St James: The Liturgy of Saint James is a form of Christian liturgy used by certain Eastern Christian communities, primarily in the Byzantine and West Syriac Rites. It evolved from an ancient Egyptian version of the Basilean anaphora and was influenced by traditions from the Church of Jerusalem. Its use spread from the Church of Antioch in the 4th or 5th century, replacing older liturgies. It remains central in the liturgical practices of churches such as the Syriac Orthodox Church, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, and Maronite Church. Attributed to James the Just, the liturgy includes various structured services, including readings from the Holy Books, the Trisagion, and the Anaphora, followed by prayers such as the Lord's Prayer and a final prayer of thanksgiving. It is most commonly celebrated on the Feast of Saint James (July 25) and on the first Sunday after Christmas, with full celebrations taking several hours. The liturgy has specific rubrics that guide its execution, including chanted hymns like the Cherubic Hymn during the offertory. The Liturgy of Saint James is known for its musical complexity, often involving neumes (early musical notation) for chanted prayers. The "Let All Mortal Flesh Keep Silence" hymn, derived from the Cherubic Hymn, is a popular expression of the liturgy in other Christian rites.
  • Penitence of Origen
  • Prayer of Paul
  • Sentences of Sextus
  • Physiologus
  • Book of the Bee
  • The Mysteries of John (Mysteries of Saint John and the Holy Virgin)[23]
  • Book of the Secret Supper
  • Investiture of Abbaton
  • Investiture of the Archangel Michael
  • Investiture of the Archangel Gabriel
  • The Questions of Mary
  • The Greater Questions of Mary
  • The Lesser Questions of Mary
  • The Birth of Mary
  • Didascalia Apostolorum
  • Sunday Letter
  • Gospel of the Lots of Mary
  • Consolamentum
  • Essene Gospel Of Peace
  • Tale of the Cross Tree
  • Exegesis on the Soul
  • Untitled Text
  • Treatise on the Resurrection
  • Tripartite Tractate
  • Authoritative Discourse
  • Concept of Our Great Power
  • Teachings of Silvanus
  • Thought of Norea
  • Zostrianos
  • Testimony of Truth
  • Interpretation of Knowledge
  • Valentinian Exposition
  • Sentences of Sextus
  • On the Origin of the World
  • Hypostasis of the Archons
  • Melchizedek (text)
  • Birth–Giver of God's Walk Through Torment
  • Ascension of Isaiah
  • Greek Apocalypse of Daniel
  • Vindicta Salvatoris
  • Cura sanitatis Tiberii
  • Manichaean Psalm Book
  • Apostolic Church-Ordinance
  • Apostolic Canons
  • Letter of Pilate to Claudius
  • Letter of Pilate to Herod
  • Letter of Pilate to Tiberius
  • Letter of Tiberius to Pilate
  • Mors Pilati
  • Sacraments of the Catholic Church
  • Maundy (foot washing)
  • Alexandrine Sinodos
  • Ethiopic Book of the Rooster
  • Sirate Tsion (the book of order)
  • Tizaz (the book of Herald)
  • Gitsew
  • Abtilis
  • The I book of Dominos
  • The II book of Dominos
  • Mäshafä Kidan
  • Against Heresies
  • Paraphrase of Shem
  • Three Steles of Seth
  • Marsanes
  • Allogenes
  • Testamentum Domini
  • Josephus on Jesus
  • Nishmat (The Jews of the Middle Ages said that it was the Apostle Peter who composed)
  • Letter to Flora

Fragments

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In addition to the known apocryphal works, there are also small fragments of texts, parts of unknown (or uncertain) works. Some of the more significant fragments are:

Lost works

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Several texts are mentioned in many ancient sources and would probably be considered part of the apocrypha, but no known text has survived:

Close candidates for canonization

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While many of the books listed here were considered heretical (especially those belonging to the gnostic tradition—as this sect was considered heretical by Proto-orthodox Christianity of the early centuries), others were not considered particularly heretical in content, but in fact were well accepted as significant spiritual works. Those marked with a lozenge (♦) are also included in the collection known as the Apostolic Fathers.

While some of the following works appear in complete Bibles from the fourth century, such as 1 Clement and The Shepherd of Hermas, showing their general popularity, they were not included when the canon was formally decided at the end of that century.

Evaluation

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Present day

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Among historians of early Christianity, the books are considered invaluable, especially those that almost made it into the final canon, such as Shepherd of Hermas. Bart Ehrman, for example, said:

The victors in the struggles to establish Christian Orthodoxy not only won their theological battles, they also rewrote the history of the conflict; later readers then naturally assumed that the victorious views had been embraced by the vast majority of Christians from the very beginning ... The practice of Christian forgery has a long and distinguished history ... the debate lasted three hundred years ... even within "orthodox" circles there was considerable debate concerning which books to include.[24]

Historical development towards today's canon

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The historical debate primarily concerned whether certain works should be read in the church service or only privately. These works were widely used but not necessarily considered Catholic or 'universal.' Such works include the Didache, Shepherd of Hermas, 1 Clement, 2 Clement, the Epistle of Barnabas, and to a lesser extent the Apocalypse of Peter.

Considering the generally accepted dates of authorship for all of the canonical New Testament works (c. 100 CE), as well as the various witnesses to canonicity extant among the writings of Ignatius, Polycarp, Irenaeus, etc., the four gospels and letters of Paul were held by the gentile Christian community as scriptural, and 200 years were needed to finalize the canon; from the beginning of the 2nd Century to the mid-4th Century, no book in the final canon was ever declared spurious or heretical, except for the Revelation of John which the Council of Laodicea in 363–364 CE rejected (although it accepted all of the other 26 books in the New Testament). This was possibly due to fears of the influence of Montanism which used the book extensively to support their theology. See Revelation of John for more details.

Athanasius wrote his Easter letter in 367 CE which defined a canon of 27 books, identical to the current canon, but also listed two works that were "not in the canon but to be read:" The Shepherd of Hermas and the Didache. Nevertheless, the early church leaders in the 3rd and 4th Centuries generally distinguished between canonical works and those that were not canonical but 'useful,' or 'good for teaching,' though never relegating any of the final 27 books to the latter category. One aim with establishing the canon was to capture only those works which were held to have been written by the Apostles, or their close associates, and as the Muratorian fragment canon (ca. 150–175 CE) states concerning the Shepherd of Hermas:[citation needed]

...But Hermas wrote The Shepherd very recently, in our times, in the city of Rome, while bishop Pius, his brother, was occupying the chair of the church of the city of Rome. And therefore it ought indeed to be read; but it cannot be read publicly to the people in church either among the Prophets, whose number is complete, or among the Apostles, for it is after their time.[25]

Published collections

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  • Cumberlege, Geoffrey (1926) [1895]. The Apocrypha: translated out of the Greek and Latin tongues: being the version set forth A.D. 1611 compared with the most ancient authorities and revised A.D. 1894 (reprint ed.). Oxford: University Press.
  • Michel, Charles; Peeters, Paul (1924) [1911]. Évangiles Apocryphes (in French) (2nd ed.). Paris: A. Picard.
  • James, Montague Rhodes (1953) [1924]. The Apocryphal New Testament (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  • González-Blanco, Edmundo, ed. (1934). Los Evangelio Apócrifos (in Spanish). Vol. 3 vols. Madrid: Bergua.
  • Bonaccorsi, Giuseppe, ed. (1948). Vangeli apocrifi (in Italian). Florence: Libreria Editrice Fiorentina.
  • Aurelio de Santos Otero, ed. (1956). Los Evangelios Apócrifos: Colección de textos griegos y latinos, versión crítica, estudios introductorios y comentarios (in Spanish). Madrid: Biblioteca de Autores Christianos.
  • Kekeliże, Korneli, ed. (1959). Kartuli versiebi aṗoḳripebis mocikulta šesaxeb [Georgian Versions of the Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles]. Tbilisi: Sakartvelos SSR mecnierebata akademiis gamomcemloba.
  • Moraldi, Luigi, ed. (1994) [1971]. Apocrifi del Nuovo Testamento (in Italian). Translated by Moraldi, Luigi (2nd ed.). Turin: Unione tipografico-editrice torinese.
  • Robinson, James M. (1977). The Nag Hammadi Library in English. San Francisco: Harper & Row.
  • Erbetta, Mario, ed. (1966–1981). Gli Apocrifi del Nuovo Testamento (in Italian). Vol. 3 vols. Translated by Erbetta, Mario. Turin: Marietti.
  • Aurelio de Santos Otero (1978–1981). Die handschriftliche Überlieferung der altslavischen Apokryphen (in German). Vol. 2 vols. Berlin: De Gruyter.
  • Herbert, Máire; McNamara, Martin (1989). Irish Biblical Apocrypha: Selected Texts in Translation. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.
  • Elliott, J. K. (1993). Apocryphal New Testament.
  • Bovon, François; Geoltrain, Pierre; Kaestli, Jean-Daniel, eds. (1997–2005). Écrits apocryphes chrétiens (in French). Paris: Gallimard.
  • Ehrman, Bart D.; Pleše, Zlatko (2011). The Apocryphal Gospels: Texts and Translations. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-973210-4.
  • Markschies, Christoph; Schröter, Jens, eds. (2012). Antike christliche Apokryphen in deutscher Übersetzung (in German). Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck.
  • Burke, Tony; Landau, Brent, eds. (2016). New Testament apocrypha: More noncanonical scriptures. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids. MI: Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-7289-0.
  • Burke, Tony, ed. (2020). New Testament apocrypha: More noncanonical scriptures. Vol. 2. Grand Rapids. MI: Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-7290-6.
  • Burke, Tony, ed. (2023). New Testament apocrypha: More noncanonical scriptures. Vol. 3. Grand Rapids. MI: Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-7793-2.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Kelly, Joseph F. (2017-03-15). The World of the Early Christians. Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-8379-8. There are both Old and New Testament Apocrypha [singular: Apocryphon],
  2. ^ Van Liere, Frans (2014). An Introduction to the Medieval Bible. Cambridge University Press. pp. 68–69. ISBN 9780521865784.
  3. ^ a b Ehrman, Bart D. (2003). Lost Christianities: Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew. Oxford University Press. pp. 230–231. ISBN 9780199756681.
  4. ^ "Apocrypha – Definition". merriam-webster.com. 23 September 2024.
  5. ^ "apocrypha | Search Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  6. ^ Charlesworth, James H (1985). Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson. p. 2257. ISBN 978-1-59856-489-1.
  7. ^ a b c Peshitta
  8. ^ Reliability Archived October 8, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  9. ^ The apocryphal New Testament, being all the gospels, epistles, and other pieces now extant. London, W. Hone. 1820.
  10. ^ ANF08...Apocrypha of the New Testament.
  11. ^ James McConkey Robinson, Christoph Heil, Jozef Verheyden, The Sayings Gospel Q: Collected Essays, Leuven, Peeters 2005, p. 279 "Not only has a third, fourth, fifth, and sixth edition of the standard German work by Edgar Hennecke and Wilhelm Schneemelcher prepared under the editorship of Schneemelcher appeared, but independent editions are being produced ..."
  12. ^ New Testament Apocrypha, Vol. 1: Gospels and Related Writings (1990), Vol. 2: Writings Relating to the Apostles Apocalypses and Related Subjects (1992), Westminster John Knox Press.
  13. ^ Stephen J. Patterson, James McConkey Robinson, Hans-Gebhard Bethge, The fifth Gospel: the Gospel of Thomas comes of age. 1998. pg. 105. quote: "The current edition of Wilhelm Schneemelcher's standard New Testament Apocrypha contains eleven Nag Hammadi tractates."
  14. ^ Cook, William R. (2009). The Catholic Church: A History. Chantilly, VA: The Teaching Company. pp. Lecture 3. ISBN 9781598035964.
  15. ^ Elliott 2005, p. 3.
  16. ^ Ehrman & Pleše 2011, p. 199.
  17. ^ Vielhauer & Strecker 1991, pp. 134–78.
  18. ^ Craig A. Evans
  19. ^ Dillon, E J (June 1893). "The Primitive Gospel". The Contemporary Review. 63. London: 857–870.
  20. ^ Wilhelm Schneemelcher; R. Mcl. Wilson, eds. (1990). New Testament Apocrypha, Vol. 1: Gospels and Related Writings. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 399. ISBN 978-0664227210. Section G4.
  21. ^ Robert McLachlan Wilson; Wilhelm Schneemelcher, eds. (2003). New Testament Apocrypha, Volume 1, Revised Edition. Presbyterian Publishing Corporation. p. 400. ISBN 9780664227210.
  22. ^ Cassell's Latin Dictionary, Marchant, J.R.V, & Charles, Joseph F., (Eds.), Revised Edition, 1928, p.396
  23. ^ "Mysteries of John". NASSCAL. 2019-04-23. Retrieved 2025-03-25.
  24. ^ Ehrman, Lost Scriptures pp. 2, 3
  25. ^ The Muratorian Fragment : 74–76

Sources

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